Health Journal Online

Tag: development

  • Puberty and Hormones in Adolescence and Their Role in Teen Development

    Puberty and Hormones in Adolescence and Their Role in Teen Development

    Puberty marks a defining stage in adolescence, where hormonal changes drive rapid physical, emotional, and psychological transformation. This period of teen development is shaped by a complex interaction of hormones that signal the body to mature from childhood into adulthood.

    While puberty unfolds differently for each individual, the biological processes behind it follow a predictable pattern that reflects the body’s natural timeline.

    What Is Puberty in Adolescence?

    Puberty refers to the phase of adolescence when the body begins developing reproductive capability and secondary sexual characteristics. It typically starts between ages 8 and 13 in girls and 9 and 14 in boys, although timing can vary due to genetics, nutrition, and environment.

    At the center of puberty is the endocrine system, which regulates hormones. The hypothalamus in the brain initiates the process by signaling the pituitary gland to release hormones that stimulate the ovaries or testes. These organs then produce sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone, setting hormonal changes into motion.

    What Triggers Puberty in Teens?

    Puberty begins when the brain activates a hormonal cascade involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads. This system, known as the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, responds to both genetic programming and environmental cues such as body fat levels and overall health.

    Understanding Hormones and Teen Development

    Hormones act as chemical messengers that regulate nearly every aspect of teen development. During adolescence, several key hormones increase significantly:

    • Estrogen, which drives development in females, including breast growth and menstrual cycles
    • Testosterone, responsible for male traits such as muscle growth and voice deepening
    • Growth hormone, which contributes to height increases and bone development

    These hormonal changes do not occur in isolation. Instead, they interact in complex ways that influence both physical growth and emotional responses.

    Which Hormones Are Responsible for Puberty?

    The main hormones involved in puberty include luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which stimulate the production of estrogen and testosterone. Together, these hormones regulate sexual maturation and reproductive readiness.

    Physical Changes During Puberty

    One of the most visible aspects of puberty is the rapid physical transformation that occurs during adolescence. Growth spurts are common, with teens experiencing sudden increases in height and weight, according to Harvard Health.

    Other physical changes include:

    • Development of primary sexual characteristics, such as ovaries and testes maturing
    • Emergence of secondary sexual characteristics, including breast development, facial hair, and body hair
    • Skin changes, such as increased oil production that may lead to acne
    • Voice changes, particularly in boys as the vocal cords lengthen

    These changes are essential markers of teen development and signal that the body is progressing toward adulthood.

    What Are the First Signs of Puberty?

    Early signs of puberty often include breast budding in girls and testicular enlargement in boys. Additional indicators may include body odor, growth of pubic hair, and slight increases in height.

    Emotional and Psychological Changes in Adolescence

    Beyond physical growth, puberty also brings significant emotional and psychological shifts. Hormonal changes influence brain development, particularly in areas responsible for decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation.

    Teenagers may experience:

    • Mood swings and heightened emotional sensitivity
    • Increased desire for independence
    • Greater awareness of identity and self-image

    These experiences are a normal part of adolescence and reflect the brain’s ongoing development.

    Why Do Teenagers Experience Mood Swings During Puberty?

    Mood swings during puberty are linked to fluctuations in hormones such as estrogen and testosterone, which can affect neurotransmitters in the brain. Social pressures, academic expectations, and changing relationships also contribute to emotional variability, as per the World Health Organization.

    Hormonal Changes and Reproductive Maturity

    As puberty progresses, hormonal changes lead to reproductive maturity. In females, the menstrual cycle begins, marking the body’s readiness for potential pregnancy. In males, the testes start producing sperm, indicating reproductive capability.

    These developments are guided by hormonal signals that regulate the reproductive system and ensure proper timing of maturation.

    At What Age Do Teens Become Fertile?

    Fertility can begin shortly after the onset of puberty. Girls may become fertile after ovulation begins, typically within a few years of their first menstrual period. Boys can produce sperm once puberty advances sufficiently, often during mid-adolescence.

    Common Challenges During Teen Development

    While puberty is a natural process, it often comes with challenges that can affect well-being. Acne is one of the most common concerns, caused by increased oil production in the skin due to hormonal changes.

    Other challenges include:

    • Body image issues as teens compare themselves to peers
    • Sleep disruptions caused by shifts in circadian rhythms
    • Increased stress related to school and social dynamics

    Recognizing these challenges as part of normal teen development can help reduce anxiety and confusion.

    Is It Normal to Feel Confused During Puberty?

    Feeling uncertain or overwhelmed during puberty is common. Adolescence is a period of rapid change, and adjusting to new physical and emotional experiences can take time. Support from family, educators, and healthcare providers can make this transition smoother.

    Supporting Healthy Puberty and Hormonal Balance

    Healthy lifestyle habits play an important role in supporting puberty and hormonal balance. Proper nutrition ensures that the body has the nutrients needed for growth, while regular physical activity promotes overall well-being.

    Key supportive practices include:

    • Maintaining a balanced diet rich in vitamins and minerals
    • Getting sufficient sleep to support growth and brain development
    • Managing stress through relaxation techniques and social support

    Open communication between teens and trusted adults also helps address concerns and encourages informed decision-making.

    How Can Teens Manage Hormonal Changes Naturally?

    Teens can manage hormonal changes by adopting consistent sleep routines, staying physically active, and eating nutrient-dense foods. Reducing stress through hobbies or mindfulness practices may also help stabilize mood and energy levels.

    When Puberty Is Early or Delayed

    Not all teens experience puberty at the same pace. Some may begin earlier than expected, a condition known as precocious puberty, while others may experience delayed puberty.

    Early or delayed puberty can be influenced by factors such as genetics, chronic illness, or hormonal imbalances. In some cases, medical evaluation may be necessary to determine the underlying cause.

    What Causes Early or Late Puberty?

    Causes of early or delayed puberty may include genetic predisposition, nutritional status, or medical conditions affecting hormone production. Environmental factors, such as exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals, may also play a role.

    Puberty and Hormonal Changes as a Natural Stage of Teen Development

    Puberty and hormonal changes are essential components of adolescence, shaping the physical growth, emotional maturity, and reproductive readiness of every individual.

    While the experience can vary widely, the underlying processes of teen development remain consistent and biologically driven. Understanding how puberty works helps demystify the changes that occur during adolescence and supports a healthier, more informed transition into adulthood.

    Frequently Asked Questions

    1. Can puberty affect academic performance in teens?

    Yes. Hormonal changes, sleep shifts, and emotional fluctuations during adolescence can impact concentration, memory, and motivation in school.

    2. Do all teens go through puberty at the same pace?

    No. Teen development varies widely, and differences in timing and progression of puberty are normal.

    3. Can diet influence hormonal changes during puberty?

    Yes. Proper nutrition supports healthy hormone production and overall development, while poor diet may disrupt normal growth patterns.

    4. Is it normal for teens to compare their development with others?

    Yes. Social comparison is common during adolescence, especially as teens become more aware of physical and emotional changes.



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  • GAD Drug Development Has Stalled for 16 Years. iNGENu CRO Is Building the Trial Framework to Change That.

    GAD Drug Development Has Stalled for 16 Years. iNGENu CRO Is Building the Trial Framework to Change That.

    The FDA has not approved a new generalized anxiety disorder treatment since 2009. With a high placebo effect, complex neurobiology, and a long list of failed candidates, GAD represents one of psychiatry’s most persistent clinical challenges. Here is what the data shows, and how precision trial design is finally shifting the odds.

    The Gap in the Market

    Generalized Anxiety Disorder affects an estimated 6.8 million adults in the United States alone, yet the last drug to receive FDA approval specifically for the condition was pregabalin, cleared in 2009. Since then, psychiatry has cycled through a series of promising candidates that ultimately could not clear the regulatory bar, leaving clinicians relying on a toolkit that is now a decade and a half old.

    The treatment gap is not for lack of scientific interest. It reflects a specific set of structural challenges: GAD’s biological complexity, the outsized placebo response typical of anxiety trials, and the rigorous endpoint standards that the FDA has maintained. For US biotech firms eyeing this space, the challenge is real, and so is the opportunity.

    The last FDA-approved GAD therapy was cleared in 2009. The biology has not changed. The trial methodology has.

    What Makes Gad Difficult to Treat

    GAD is characterized by persistent, excessive worry about everyday matters that causes measurable functional impairment. Unlike discrete phobias or panic disorder, it is diffuse, chronic, and deeply intertwined with both neurobiological and psychological systems.

    The neurochemical picture is complex. GAD is associated with dysregulation across multiple transmitter systems, including serotonin, norepinephrine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Early drug development concentrated heavily on GABA-targeting compounds. The results were largely disappointing, reinforcing what researchers now recognize: single-pathway interventions tend to fall short in a condition this multifactorial.

    Genetics plays a partial role. Heritability estimates for GAD sit around 30%, a figure high enough to justify genetic research targets, but low enough to confirm that environmental and psychological factors remain significant contributors. That complexity creates both a challenge for trial design and an argument for individualized treatment approaches.

    The diagnostic framework has evolved. Under DSM-5 (code 300.02 / F41.1), GAD requires excessive anxiety and worry occurring more days than not for at least six months, with the individual finding the worry difficult to control. The ICD-11 (code 6A71) similarly emphasizes persistent, excessive worry across multiple activities. For trial sponsors, precision in patient selection using these criteria is not just a clinical formality; it directly affects outcome data.

    The Six FDA-Approved Treatments: A Historical Snapshot

    Six drugs have received FDA approval for the treatment of GAD. The timeline tells a story about where science has concentrated and where it has plateaued.

    Drug FDA Approval Mechanism / Notes
    Buspirone 1986 Anxiolytic targeting serotonin receptors; distinct from benzodiazepines
    Paroxetine 2001 SSRI; commonly prescribed where depression co-occurs with GAD
    Escitalopram 2002 SSRI with demonstrated efficacy across GAD and major depressive disorder
    Duloxetine 2007 SNRI; covers GAD, major depressive disorder, and neuropathic pain
    Venlafaxine 2008 SNRI; used across GAD, depression, and panic disorder
    Pregabalin 2009 Originally an anticonvulsant; adopted for GAD based on CNS calming effects

    The six approved agents cluster around SSRIs and SNRIs, with buspirone representing the only serotonin-specific anxiolytic and pregabalin the lone anticonvulsant-class entry. No novel mechanism has made it to approval in the 16 years since. The reasons lie partly in the drugs that did not make it.

    Lessons from the Failures: Five Candidates That Could Not Cross the Line

    Analyzing failed drug development is as instructive as studying successes. The last decade of GAD trials has produced a consistent set of failure patterns that inform how new trials should be designed.

    Candidate Primary Failure Mode Detail
    Tofisopam Limited Efficacy Failed to outperform placebo in large-scale trials
    Esmirtazapine Discontinued Development halted on strategic grounds despite promising early data
    Gepirone ER Insufficient Efficacy Did not meet primary efficacy endpoints
    Fasoracetam Inconclusive Lacked a clear efficacy signal in GAD-specific trials
    PF-06372865 Safety & Efficacy Development halted over safety concerns and insufficient trial performance

    Several themes recur across these failures. Limited sample sizes produced underpowered results. Short trial durations missed the chronic nature of GAD’s trajectory. And the placebo response in anxiety studies is structurally higher than in most other therapeutic areas, which means that even moderately effective compounds can appear statistically indistinguishable from inactive controls if the trial is not designed to account for it.

    There is also a financial dimension. The cost and risk profile of CNS drug development has led multiple pharma organizations to redirect resources toward indications with clearer regulatory pathways. That dynamic has left an opening for lean, well-organized biotech firms to move into GAD with more focused programs and lower overhead structures.

    The placebo response in anxiety trials is structurally higher than in most other therapeutic areas. A trial not designed to account for this will produce misleading results regardless of the compound’s actual efficacy.

    What High-Quality Gad Trial Design Actually Requires

    The FDA’s standards for GAD are not ambiguous. What has proven difficult is executing against them consistently. Based on the available evidence from failed candidates, successful trial design in this indication requires attention to five interconnected variables.

    Patient selection precision. Rigorous application of DSM-5 and ICD-11 criteria at enrollment is foundational. Trials that use loose inclusion criteria or fail to screen out comorbid conditions with overlapping symptom profiles inflate variance and obscure the treatment signal.

    Appropriate outcome measures. The Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A) remains the primary FDA-recognized endpoint for GAD, but it functions best when paired with secondary measures that capture patient-reported experience. Reliance on a single endpoint has contributed to approval failures even when a partial clinical benefit was observable.

    Managing the placebo effect. GAD trials consistently show placebo response rates that make separation from active treatment difficult to demonstrate. Strategies including optimized rater training, centralized assessment protocols, and blinding procedures are not optional enhancements; they are structural requirements for generating reliable efficacy data.

    Safety monitoring infrastructure. Several failed candidates ran into safety signals that might have been identified and managed earlier with more granular pharmacovigilance protocols. Real-time safety oversight reduces the risk of late-stage discontinuation.

    Regulatory alignment from day one. FDA engagement during trial design, not after data collection, is one of the most consistent differentiators between programs that advance and those that do not. Pre-IND consultation, alignment on endpoint selection, and documented regulatory strategy significantly reduce the probability of a complete response letter.

    The iNGENu CRO Approach to Gad Research

    iNGENu CRO is an Australian-headquartered clinical research organization built specifically to support early-to-mid-stage biotech firms pursuing FDA approval. In GAD and broader psychiatric indications, the organization brings several structural advantages that address the failure patterns described above.

    FDA-compliant data from non-US trials. iNGENu’s Australian trial infrastructure generates data under 21 CFR 312.120 compliance, meaning results from Asia-Pacific trials can be submitted directly to the FDA without the need for a US IND at the early-phase stage. This shortens start-up timelines to as little as eight to twelve weeks for Phase 1 and 2 programs.

    Physician-led trial execution. Sponsors engage directly with iNGENu’s medical and scientific leadership, including its Chief Executive Officer and PhD scientists, from the start of the engagement. This reduces the communication overhead that leads to protocol drift in larger CRO structures.

    Cost structure aligned with biotech economics. Through the Australian Government’s 43.5% R&D Tax Incentive, eligible sponsors can recover a significant portion of trial expenditure as a direct cash refund. iNGENu reports that more than 99% of its clients qualify for this program. For early-stage firms managing tight capital structures, the cost differential can be decisive.

    Validated psychiatric trial infrastructure. iNGENu operates dedicated clinical capabilities in psychiatric disorder research, with assessment instruments, rater training protocols, and patient-centered design features suited to the specific demands of GAD and related anxiety conditions. This infrastructure directly addresses the endpoint measurement and placebo management challenges that have historically contributed to trial failures in this space.

    Sponsors engage directly with iNGENu’s medical and scientific leadership from the start of the engagement. This structure reduces the communication overhead that causes protocol drift.

    The Market Case for Moving Now

    The commercial argument for GAD drug development is straightforward. Prevalence is high, existing treatments have significant tolerability and efficacy limitations, and there has been no new approved mechanism in the indication since 2009. For a US biotech capable of demonstrating meaningful separation from placebo on validated endpoints, the market entry would be entering largely uncrowded territory.

    The parallel shift toward personalized medicine approaches in psychiatry also creates an opening for novel mechanisms. Multi-target drugs, biomarker-stratified patient selection, and next-generation pharmacological approaches are all areas where early-stage investment today could translate to a differentiated regulatory position within a realistic development timeline.

    iNGENu CRO’s whitepaper on generalized anxiety disorder clinical endpoints, FDA approvals, and trial enhancements maps this landscape in detail for sponsors actively evaluating GAD as a program priority. The document is available directly through iNGENu CRO and covers diagnostic criteria, clinical endpoints, historical approval and failure analysis, and the firm’s approach to trial design.

    Conclusion

    GAD drug development has not stalled because the patient’s need is unclear. It has stalled because the trial execution demands are high and the consequences of methodological shortcuts are severe. The programs most likely to succeed in this space will be those that approach the design phase with the same rigor they bring to the molecule itself.

    With the FDA’s endpoint standards well established, the biological rationale for novel mechanisms documented in the literature, and a cost-accessible clinical infrastructure available through Australia’s regulatory pathway, the conditions for a new wave of GAD approvals are better than they have been in years. The question for sponsors is whether their trial architecture is capable of delivering on the opportunity.

    BOOK A DISCOVERY CALL WITH iNGENu CRO

    iNGENu CRO provides high-quality, FDA-compliant clinical research for innovative biotech firms. To discuss your GAD or psychiatric clinical trial program, contact the team directly:
    Email: hello@ingenucro.com
    Website: www.ingenucro.com

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  • Early Signs Every Parent Should Know for Healthy Child Development

    Early Signs Every Parent Should Know for Healthy Child Development

    Understanding early indicators of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is crucial for parents and caregivers who want to support their child’s growth. Autism affects communication, social interaction, and behavior, with many signs appearing during the toddler years when development rapidly unfolds. Recognizing these signs early makes it easier for families to seek the right guidance and support.

    Identifying autism symptoms during the toddler stage can greatly improve overall child development outcomes. Early awareness helps parents understand the difference between variations in typical behavior and patterns that may indicate ASD early signs. By knowing what to look for and when to take action, families can intervene during the most important years for learning and development.

    Common Early Signs of Autism in Toddlers

    When identifying autism symptoms toddler age, several early indicators are commonly observed. While every child has unique behaviors and traits, consistent patterns across communication, social interaction, and behavior warrant closer attention.

    • Delayed or limited speech development: Children may show reduced babbling, few spontaneous words, or a lack of back-and-forth vocal interaction by 12–18 months. Some children may not imitate sounds or gestures, which is a key developmental expectation.
    • Reduced eye contact and limited social engagement: Toddlers with ASD may avoid eye contact, seem indifferent to social games like peek-a-boo, or fail to respond to their name consistently. These signs often appear early and remain noticeable across different settings.
    • Repetitive behaviors and intense focus on specific objects: Behaviors such as hand-flapping, rocking, spinning, or lining up toys repeatedly can indicate ASD. Some toddlers may become deeply fixated on particular objects or routines.
    • Sensory sensitivities or unusual reactions to stimuli: Unusual responses to lights, textures, or sounds—including covering ears, avoiding touch, or seeking sensory input—may indicate ASD-related sensitivities.
    • Difficulty with joint attention: Joint attention includes pointing to show interest, following another person’s gaze, or looking back and forth between a caregiver and an object. Toddlers with ASD often struggle with these early social skills.

    According to Boston Children’s Hospital, toddlers who exhibit multiple early markers may benefit from early developmental evaluation to determine whether behavior patterns align with ASD.

    How Early Signs Align with Overall Child Development Milestones

    Understanding ASD early signs requires comparing them to typical developmental milestones. Children usually begin imitating adults, engaging in pretend play, responding to their name, and showing curiosity about others within the first two years of life. Toddlers with ASD, however, often diverge from these benchmarks in consistent ways.

    Differences appear in imaginative play, which may be limited or absent compared to peers who pretend-feed dolls or act out simple stories. Sensory behaviors—such as seeking or avoiding certain textures or movements—also differentiate ASDs from typical child development. These differences don’t appear as isolated behaviors but as patterns across communication, interaction, and play.

    Monitoring developmental milestones at 12, 18, and 24 months is essential for identifying potential ASD early signs. Based on a study conducted by the National Institutes of Health, delays in communication and social engagement at 18 months strongly correlate with later ASD diagnosis. Early developmental screenings play a key role in detecting these patterns.

    Screening tools like the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, Revised (M-CHAT-R) assist pediatricians in identifying risk factors early. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, these tools help flag potential concerns, allowing families to pursue evaluations or early intervention programs as needed.

    Conclusion

    Recognizing autism symptoms toddler stage is an important step in supporting a child’s long-term development. By understanding common ASD early signs—such as communication delays, reduced eye contact, limited engagement, and repetitive behaviors—parents can identify concerns early. Early diagnosis and intervention improve outcomes, helping children build stronger communication and social skills during key developmental years. Parents who observe developmental differences should seek professional guidance promptly. With early screenings, supportive resources, and consistent monitoring of child development, families can ensure their children receive the help they need to thrive. Early action is not just helpful—it is transformative for children showing ASD early signs.

    Frequently Asked Questions

    1. How can parents distinguish between autism signs and typical toddler behavior?

    Typical toddlers may show temporary delays or quirks, but ASD signs tend to be consistent, persistent, and present in multiple settings. Patterns involving communication, interaction, and behavior are key indicators.

    2. What are the recommended next steps if early signs are observed?

    Parents should consult a pediatrician for a developmental screening. They may be referred to developmental specialists, child psychologists, or early intervention services for further assessment.

    3. Can early intervention change the developmental trajectory for children with ASD?

    Yes. Research shows that therapy beginning before age three can significantly improve communication, social skills, and overall development.

    4. What resources are available for parents seeking guidance and diagnosis?

    Parents can use early intervention programs, pediatric developmental assessments, the CDC’s resources, autism support organizations, and local health professionals specializing in ASD.



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  • You Probably Do This Every Day- But Experts Warn It’s Harming Your Child’s Development

    You Probably Do This Every Day- But Experts Warn It’s Harming Your Child’s Development

    You ask your child to put the phone down, concerned about the effects of too much screen time on their developing brain. But what if the problem is not just their habits, but yours?

    New research suggests that it is not enough to simply limit a child’s screen time, but the way parents use technology around their children can influence a child’s cognitive development, emotional well-being, and even how much time kids themselves spend on screens.

    Many parents scroll through their phones during mealtime or playtime, often without thinking twice. But this seemingly harmless habit is creating a growing disruption known as “phubbing”, when technology gets in the way of face-to-face connection.

    Since young children rely on their parents’ attention and responsiveness to feel secure, explore their world, and develop emotionally, when this connection is interrupted, it can quietly affect their healthy development, suggests the researchers of the latest study published in the journal JAMA Network Open.

    The researchers evaluated over 6,000 studies on how parents use technology around their young children and further narrowed it down to include only studies that focused on healthy children from birth to about 5 years old. These studies explored how a parent’s use of phones or other devices in front of their child, called parental technology use (PTU), might be linked to factors such as the child’s brain development, emotional health, movement skills, screen time, sleep, and physical activity.

    The findings revealed that when parents use technology around their young children, it is linked to lower cognitive development, higher internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and weaker attachment. Children also spent more time on screens. The effects were consistent regardless of the type of technology used.

    “Parents’ use of technology in their child’s presence was negatively associated with cognitive and psychosocial outcomes and screen time among young children, although the effect sizes were small. Further research focusing on potential impacts on physical activity, sleep, and motor skills is needed,” the researchers concluded.

    The researchers stress that these findings do not mean technological devices are “inherently harmful,” as they can be useful tools for parents. However, managing how and when devices are used around children could help reduce possible negative effects. One helpful approach may be co-viewing or co-using devices with children, which has been “positively associated with cognitive outcomes” in early childhood.

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  • AAP Recommends Shared Reading To Strengthen Bonds, Boost Brain Development

    AAP Recommends Shared Reading To Strengthen Bonds, Boost Brain Development

    Do you read aloud to your kids? This simple yet meaningful bonding experience between parents and caregivers can have lasting benefits. A recent recommendation from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) emphasizes that reading together not only strengthens familial connections but also boosts brain development in young minds.

    The latest updated policy statement from the AAP suggests “literacy promotion as a universal primary prevention strategy to strengthen families and support healthy development.”

    The policy statement published in Pediatrics recommends that parents and caregivers read with their children from birth, continuing at least through kindergarten, including in the NICU. This practice supports language, cognitive, and social-emotional development in early childhood. The evidence shows it improves school readiness and helps with early brain development. Reading with kids also helps with positive childhood experiences that enhance early relational health.

    “Reading together with young children weaves joyful language and rich interactive moments into the fabric of daily life. As a pediatrician and parent, I suggest making books your bedtime routine, using them to connect and wind down after a busy day, and generally building them into life with a young child. It will strengthen the bonds that hold you together, and build your child’s developing brain,” said Dr. Perri Klass, the lead author of the policy statement.

    “Research tells us that reading proficiency by third grade is a significant predictor of high school graduation and career success. Children who first encounter books in the arms of their parents, when they are very young, arrive at school associating books and reading with lap-time, a sense of security, interactions, stories, rhymes, and entertainment, and above all with the beloved voices of the adults with whom they have those all-important early relationships.”

    Experts particularly stress the importance of reading books, especially as children are increasingly exposed to screen time and electronic devices become more popular in their daily lives. According to pediatric experts, digital books do not encourage the same level of parent-child interaction as traditional books. If screen-based reading or audiobooks are used, parents should engage in reciprocal interactions with their children during these activities to strengthen relational bonds and enhance learning.

    “Turning the pages of a high-quality, print book filled with colorful pictures and rich, expressive language is best. While touchscreens and other electronic devices may be popular, they are typically passive or solitary experiences for children and do not offer the same benefits of interactivity and relationship-building,” said Dr. Dipesh Navsaria, a co-author of the technical report and chair of the Council on Early Childhood.

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